Werner GABOREAU (École française de Rome)

In 17th-century Europe, the rulers of a State through letters of credence accredited their ambassadors. This official document was addressed to the ruler of the foreign state and enabled the bearer to be recognized as a diplomat. In financial terms, ambassadors have at their disposal the funds allocated by their State. On occasion, they may have to pay out of their own pocket the sums required to carry out their duties. These unwritten social, cultural and political norms are not unique to the Catholic or Protestant states of early modern Europe.

The official political relations between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire, which began in the early 16th century, reflected these diplomatic codes. The monarchs of the Safavid dynasty operated in much the same way in their official relations with some other Asian states (Siam, the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India and the sultanates of the Indian Ocean). They sent letters to foreign rulers, to whom they also presented gifts. However, due to the distance involved, there were differences regarding the funding of diplomatic missions and the recognition of the status of ambassadors.

In this paper I will explore the early modern Iranian diplomatic context, through an analysis of official letters, Safavid edicts (farmān) and decrees (raqam), as well as accounts by European travellers from the reigns of Abbas I (1587–1629) to Abbas II (1642–1666). To this end, I will examine how Europeans in Iran negotiated their status and obtained documents of diplomatic « significance. »

Nobuaki KONDO (ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)

While Ottoman ‘ahdnames (letters of oath, capitulations) have served as a focal point for many researchers concerning Ottoman-European relations, ʿahdnames issued by other states have not attracted much scholarly attention. It is important to remember that the term ‘ahdname was not confined to the Ottoman Empire. Its origins can be traced back to the 10th century, and the practice of issuing ʿahdnames evolved in the Persian epistolary tradition. This presentation builds on the author’s earlier discussions of the ʿahdnames before 1500 (Kondo 2026) and aims to demonstrate how the Safavids used the ʿahdnames in diplomacy. By examining the Ottoman ʿahdnames issued not for Europeans but for the Safavids, as well as those issued by the Safavids, this presentation offers an extensive view of early modern Muslim diplomacy.

The presenter will investigate two main groups of ʿahdnames from the 17th century for this presentation: the Safavid-English treaty (1617) and the Ottoman-Safavid treaty (1639–40). The treaty between two Muslim empires was prepared in accordance with the Persian epistolary tradition, while that between the Safavid and English introduced unique features not seen before 1500 and differed from the Ottoman ʿahdnames issued for Europeans. This research will shed light on how Muslim states negotiated with Europeans operating outside the Persian tradition, thereby adding a new dimension to the study of early modern international relations.