Werner GABOREAU (École française de Rome)

In 17th-century Europe, the rulers of a State through letters of credence accredited their ambassadors. This official document was addressed to the ruler of the foreign state and enabled the bearer to be recognized as a diplomat. In financial terms, ambassadors have at their disposal the funds allocated by their State. On occasion, they may have to pay out of their own pocket the sums required to carry out their duties. These unwritten social, cultural and political norms are not unique to the Catholic or Protestant states of early modern Europe.

The official political relations between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire, which began in the early 16th century, reflected these diplomatic codes. The monarchs of the Safavid dynasty operated in much the same way in their official relations with some other Asian states (Siam, the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India and the sultanates of the Indian Ocean). They sent letters to foreign rulers, to whom they also presented gifts. However, due to the distance involved, there were differences regarding the funding of diplomatic missions and the recognition of the status of ambassadors.

In this paper I will explore the early modern Iranian diplomatic context, through an analysis of official letters, Safavid edicts (farmān) and decrees (raqam), as well as accounts by European travellers from the reigns of Abbas I (1587–1629) to Abbas II (1642–1666). To this end, I will examine how Europeans in Iran negotiated their status and obtained documents of diplomatic « significance. »